Tailwheel Endorsement Study Guide

The two main gear struts attach slightly ahead of the center of gravity, so the airplane rests nose-high on a triangle formed by the mains and the tailwheel, with the CG behind the main wheels (AFH ch 14).

That one geometric fact produces the three handling differences you'll spend your checkout learning: directional instability, a built-in angle of attack on the ground, and exaggerated crosswind weathervaning (AFH ch 14).

With the CG aft of the pivot point — the main wheel the airplane turns around once a taxi turn starts — the airplane's forward momentum acts to continue and even tighten the turn with no further steering input (AFH ch 14).

A nose-wheel airplane does the opposite — CG ahead of the pivot damps the turn out. That reversal is the whole ballgame.

No. Removing rudder pressure ordinarily does not stop a turn that's been started — you must apply an opposite input to bring the airplane back to straight-line travel (AFH ch 14).

The taxi rhythm is therefore three-part: rudder to start the turn, neutralize as it continues, opposite rudder to stop it.

The turn continues to tighten — an unexpected result for a pilot used to a nose-wheel. This is why transitioning pilots have trouble on their first taxi attempts (AFH ch 14).

As long as taxi speeds stay low, no serious problem results. Which leads to the AFH's own headline: the most important lesson taught in tailwheel airplanes is to taxi and make turns at slow speeds (AFH ch 14).

Centering spring: a device many tailwheel airplanes have that returns the tailwheel to center when you relax a rudder pedal input.

What it doesn't do: reliably return the airplane to a straight line of travel from a tight turn (AFH ch 14). Don't let its existence talk you out of an active opposite-rudder correction.

Because of the built-in nose-high attitude, a tailwheel airplane makes lift on the ground anytime there is a relative headwind. The amount depends on wind speed, but even at slow taxi speeds the wings and ailerons are "doing their best to aid in liftoff" (AFH ch 14).

That's why control positioning matters more here than in a trainer, and why the takeoff and landing rolls need active management.

A tailwheel airplane has more side area behind the main gear than in front of it. The mains act as the pivot, and the crosswind pushes on the larger area aft of that pivot — turning the nose into the wind, more so than in nose-wheel designs (AFH ch 14).

It's greatest with a direct crosswind, and sometimes requires brakes when tailwheel steering alone can't hold it (AFH ch 14).

In the normal nose-high attitude, the engine cowling may be high enough to block your view of the area directly ahead. Objects straight in front are difficult or impossible to see (AFH ch 14).

In airplanes that are completely blind ahead, start every taxi movement with a small turn to confirm no aircraft or ground vehicle has parked itself under your nose, then zigzag or S-turn to clear the path (AFH ch 14).

No — that's the intuitive but incorrect conclusion. The tailwheel design sometimes requires vigorous rudder inputs to maintain or retain directional control (AFH ch 14).

The correct mental model: tailwheel airplanes are not damaged from too much rudder, but from rudder inputs held too long (AFH ch 14). Big and brief beats timid and sustained.

Yes. A few airplanes — primarily antique and experimental — have a tailskid rather than a tailwheel, and the same principles usually apply (AFH ch 14).

Heels on the floor, balls of the feet on the bottom of the rudder pedals. Slide up onto the brake pedals only when you actually need brakes (AFH ch 14).

The reason is mechanical: this position permits simultaneous application of rudder and brake whenever needed. Some tailwheel airplanes use heel brakes instead of toe brakes (AFH ch 14).

Tailwheel designs came first, so they're still termed conventional-gear airplanes — but today they're most likely to be flown by pilots who first learned in nose-wheels. The AFH deliberately presents tailwheel operations as they appear to a pilot transitioning from tricycle gear (AFH ch 14).

The main landing gear forms the principal support of the airplane on the ground. The tailwheel also supports the airplane, but steering and directional control are its primary functions (AFH ch 14).

That division explains a lot of tailwheel technique — anything that unloads the tailwheel (a raised tail, a lifting stabilizer, a bounce) costs you steering authority at exactly the moment you want it.

Steering with the pedals may work through any of three paths (AFH ch 14):

• Airflow or propeller slipstream acting on the rudder surface
• A direct mechanical linkage to the tailwheel
• A mechanical linkage acting through springs to turn the tailwheel

Proper use of the rudder pedals is crucial for directional control while taxiing — and knowing which mechanism your airplane uses tells you how much authority to expect at low speed with low power.

A tailwheel airplane continues to "fly" in the three-point attitude after touchdown, requiring careful attention to heading, roll, and pitch for an extended period. That's because reducing AOA and transferring weight to the tires — normal after a nose-wheel touchdown — is not practical here, and it's rare to find a tailwheel design whose wings are beyond critical AOA in the three-point attitude (AFH ch 14).

By contrast, in a nose-wheel airplane, touchdown is naturally followed by lowering the nose, which reduces AOA, removes almost all wing lift, and rapidly transfers weight to the tires.

The steering mechanism operates along with the rudder and remains engaged through an arc of about 30° each side of center. Beyond that limit the tailwheel breaks free and becomes full swiveling — in full swivel the airplane can be pivoted within its own length (AFH ch 14).

Use the steerable tailwheel for normal turns and keep your feet off the brake pedals to avoid unnecessary brake wear (AFH ch 14).

The first thing you do is test the brakes:

1. Apply power to start the airplane moving slowly forward.
2. Retard the throttle while applying smooth, simultaneous pressure to both brakes.
3. If braking action is unsatisfactory, shut the engine down immediately (AFH ch 14).

Apply rudder in the desired direction of turn and use whatever power or brake is necessary to control taxi speed (AFH ch 14).

At very low taxi speeds, directional response is sluggish — surface friction on the tailwheel inhibits inputs through the steering springs. At normal taxi speeds, rudder inputs alone should start and stop most turns (AFH ch 14).

• Aileron: stick held into the wind. The upwind wing can easily be lifted by gusts or strong winds unless the ailerons are positioned to "kill" lift on that side.
• Elevator: usually full back, to add downward pressure on the tailwheel assembly and improve steering response.
• Exception: in a strong quartering headwind a wing could lift, so the elevator may be held closer to neutral (AFH ch 14).

The aileron rule is the same one you learned in a trainer — what's added is the tailwheel's vulnerability created by the fuselage pitch attitude.

Aileron: stick away from the crosswind — left aileron in a right quartering tailwind (AFH ch 14).

Elevator: it depends on wind strength; this is the one that isn't a simple rule.

The nose-high fuselage angle actually reduces the wind's tendency to lift either wing in a tailwind. But the basic vulnerability to surface winds makes it essential to know the wind direction at all times (AFH ch 14).

Standard teaching says full forward stick in any tailwind, for two reasons: a tailwind striking a full-down elevator increases downward pressure on the tailwheel, and — equally important — if the elevator stayed deflected up, a strong tailwind can get under the control surface and lift the tail, with unfortunate consequences for the propeller and engine (AFH ch 14).

But forward stick is not appropriate in light winds. Propeller wash in even lightly-powered airplanes usually overcomes a light tailwind, producing a net headwind over the tail — so back stick does more for directional control. If in doubt, sample the wind as you taxi and put the elevator where it does the most good (AFH ch 14).

Alternately turn the nose from one side to the other (zigzag) or make a series of short S-turns, done slowly, smoothly, positively, and cautiously (AFH ch 14).

And in an airplane that's completely blind ahead, start every taxi movement with a small turn — to be sure nothing has positioned itself directly under your nose while you were heads-down getting ready (AFH ch 14).

An uncontrolled turn during ground operations that may occur during taxi, takeoff, or the after-landing roll (AFH ch 14).

Ground loops start with a swerve that is allowed to continue for too long. The swerve may come from a side-load on landing, a taxi turn started with too much groundspeed, overcorrection, or even an uneven surface or soft spot that retards one main wheel (AFH ch 14).

Because of the inbuilt instability, the forces that lead to a ground loop accumulate as the angle between the fuselage and inertia (acting from the CG) increases (AFH ch 14).

It's a positive feedback loop: more yaw angle produces more force producing more yaw. If allowed to develop, the forces may become great enough to tip the airplane to the outside of the turn until one wing strikes the ground (AFH ch 14).

1. Counter any swerve with firm rudder input.
2. In stronger swerves, differential braking is essential — tailwheel steering alone proves inadequate.
3. As the correction begins to take effect, remove the rudder and braking inputs promptly — otherwise you start another departure in the opposite direction (AFH ch 14).

Step 3 is the one pilots skip, and it's why oscillations build.

The combination of inertia acting on the CG and ground friction of the main wheels may cause the airplane to tip enough for the outside wingtip to contact the ground, and may even impose a sideward force that could collapse one landing gear leg (AFH ch 14).

In general, this combination is eliminated by landing straight and avoiding turns at higher than normal running speed (AFH ch 14).

Slide your toes or feet up from the rudder pedals to the brake pedals (or apply heel pressure in heel-brake airplanes).

Critical detail: if you're holding rudder pressure when braking is needed, do not release that pressure as your feet slide up — control may be lost before the brakes can be applied (AFH ch 14). Apply brakes smoothly and evenly, and avoid overcontrolling (AFH ch 14).

At very low taxi speeds, surface friction acting on the tailwheel inhibits the inputs coming through the steering springs, so response is sluggish. At normal taxi speeds, rudder inputs alone are enough to start and stop most turns (AFH ch 14).

The trap is calibrating your feet on the sluggish low-speed response and then carrying that habit into higher-speed rolling — where the same input is now oversized.

They're the solution because in stronger swerves differential braking is essential — tailwheel steering alone proves inadequate to stop the divergence (AFH ch 14).

They're a hazard because braking inputs held after the correction takes effect start a departure in the opposite direction, and because caution should be exercised when applying brakes to avoid overcontrolling (AFH ch 14). Firm, brief, and off — not firm and held.

Apply aileron control toward the wing that is rising to lower it. The amount required depends on speed, because as forward speed decreases the ailerons become less effective (AFH ch 14).

So the input isn't fixed — it grows as you slow. In a crosswind after-landing roll this culminates in aileron held fully toward the wind by the time the airplane is coming to a stop (AFH ch 14).

• Lower flaps before takeoff if the manufacturer recommends it
• Align the airplane with the intended takeoff direction
• Position the tailwheel straight or centered — and in airplanes with a locking device, lock it centered
• Release the brakes, then advance the throttle smoothly and continuously to takeoff power
• Avoid applying brake pressure during the takeoff roll (AFH ch 14)

After a brief period of acceleration, apply positive forward elevator to smoothly lift the tail (AFH ch 14).

The goal is a pitch attitude that improves forward visibility and produces a smooth transition to climbing flight as the airplane continues to accelerate — not a specific number. Your POH and instructor set the target attitude for your airplane.

Nose-down pitch movement produces left yaw — the result of gyroscopic precession created by the propeller (AFH ch 14).

The force is directly related to the rate at which the propeller axis is tilted when the tail comes up, so avoid an abrupt pitch change. Smooth or abrupt, you'll need rudder to counter the yaw — which is exactly the increased directional demand transitioning pilots don't anticipate (AFH ch 14).

As speed builds, the added authority of the elevator naturally continues to pitch the nose forward. Your job is to maintain a constant pitch attitude by gradually reducing elevator deflection — you're feeding the stick back as the elevator gets more effective.

At the same time, maintain directional control with smooth, prompt, positive rudder corrections (AFH ch 14).

If you maintain the appropriate pitch attitude throughout the roll, liftoff occurs when AOA and airspeed combine to produce the necessary lift — without any additional 'rotation' input (AFH ch 14).

The ideal takeoff attitude then requires only minimum pitch adjustment shortly after liftoff to attain the desired climb speed. You aren't rotating; you're setting an attitude and letting the airplane leave when it's ready.

Yes — modern tailwheel airplanes can be lifted off in the three-point attitude, because the AOA with all three wheels on the ground does not exceed the critical AOA, so the wings will not be stalled (AFH ch 14).

But while instructive, the technique produces an unusually high pitch attitude and an AOA excessively close to stall — both inadvisable when flying only inches from the ground (AFH ch 14).

Add an extra margin of speed before allowing the airplane to leave the ground. A takeoff at normal takeoff speed may result in a lack of positive control, or a stall, when the airplane hits a sudden lull in gusty wind or other turbulent air (AFH ch 14).

Technique: hold the airplane on the ground longer to attain more speed, then make a smooth, positive rotation to leave the ground (AFH ch 14).

Aileron deflection into the wind keeps the upwind wing from rising, and rudder deflection as needed prevents weathervaning. Establish and maintain both corrections prior to liftoff (AFH ch 14).

Because you want the wings working. Strong crosswinds are the reason for maintaining a positive AOA (tail-low attitude) while accelerating (AFH ch 14).

Since the wings are making lift during the roll, strong upwind aileron can bank the airplane into the wind and give you positive crosswind correction soon after the roll begins — the remainder of the roll is then made on the upwind main wheel, with rudder holding the longitudinal axis aligned with the runway (AFH ch 14).

As the airplane accelerates, smoothly decrease the pitch attitude and adjust aileron and rudder pressures to maintain the appropriate crosswind correction (AFH ch 14).

Watch the pitch: if it stays excessively steep or goes too flat, crosswind control during the ground roll becomes more difficult (AFH ch 14). There's a window, and you have to live in it.

As the airplane leaves the runway, the wings level out as appropriate drift correction — a crab — is established (AFH ch 14).

Wing-low on the ground, crab in the air — the transition happens right at liftoff.

With the exception of flap settings and initial climb speed as recommended by the manufacturer, there is little difference from the normal takeoff technique. After liftoff, adjust pitch attitude as required for obstacle clearance (AFH ch 14).

One caveat worth knowing: manufacturers of some airplanes, especially higher-powered ones, recommend a short-field technique with liftoff in the three-point attitude. Always review and follow the manufacturer's recommended procedures (AFH ch 14).

• Lower flaps before starting if the manufacturer recommends it — transfers weight from wheels to wings early
• Taxi onto the surface without stopping; keep the airplane in continuous motion with sufficient power while lining up
• Because of the high power settings, it's usually best to have the elevator full up while taxiing onto a soft runway — there's danger of bogging down and of tipping up onto the nose
• Apply takeoff power smoothly and as rapidly as the powerplant will accept without faltering
• Keep the tail very low to maintain the inherent positive AOA and avoid nosing over on soft spots, tall grass, or deep snow
• Once airborne, accelerate to climb speed in ground effect (AFH ch 14)

Because elevator authority grows with airspeed. The added authority of the elevator naturally continues to pitch the nose forward as you accelerate, so the forward deflection that was correct at tail-raise speed becomes too much a few seconds later.

The instruction is to maintain a constant pitch attitude by gradually reducing elevator deflection (AFH ch 14). You're holding an attitude, not a control position — which is a different skill from what most trainer takeoffs teach.

The AFH names gyroscopic precession, triggered by raising the tail, as the tailwheel-specific one — nose-down pitch movement produces left yaw, with force proportional to how fast you tilt the propeller axis (AFH ch 14).

Layered on top of that are the ground-handling realities from every takeoff: weathervaning in any crosswind, which is exaggerated in tailwheel types, and the inbuilt directional instability that means any yaw you allow to develop tends to tighten rather than damp (AFH ch 14). The rudder work is continuous, not occasional.

1. Before rolling: aileron into the wind, ready to hold the upwind wing down; tailwheel centered (locked if equipped).
2. Early roll: maintain a positive AOA / tail-low attitude — the wings are already making lift, so strong upwind aileron can bank the airplane into the wind and give you real crosswind correction almost immediately.
3. Main roll: the remainder of the roll is made on the upwind main wheel, with rudder holding the longitudinal axis aligned with the runway.
4. Accelerating: smoothly decrease pitch attitude and continuously readjust aileron and rudder — too steep or too flat both make control harder.
5. Liftoff: as the airplane leaves the runway, level the wings and establish the crab (AFH ch 14).

Because pitch attitude sets how much lift the wings are making on the ground, and lift is what your aileron correction is working with. If the pitch attitude remains excessively steep or too flat, crosswind control during the ground roll becomes more difficult (AFH ch 14).

Too steep and the airplane wants to leave the ground before you have the speed and control to handle the drift; too flat and the wings aren't loaded enough for aileron to do the banking work the technique depends on.

A three-point landing is defined by the main gear and tailwheel touching down at the same time — the airplane is held off the runway until its attitude matches the geometry of the landing gear, at which point all three wheels meet the surface together (AFH ch 14).

It's one of two touchdown techniques for tailwheel airplanes; the other is the wheel landing, where the mains touch earlier in a lower attitude with the tail still up (AFH ch 14).

Round out (level-off) with the main wheels about one foot off the surface. From there the technique is essentially the same as in a nose-wheel airplane — a gentle increase in AOA to maintain flight while slowing (AFH ch 14).

The difference is the target: the goal is a much steeper fuselage angle than you'd use in a nose-wheel airplane — one that touches the tailwheel at the same time as the main wheels (AFH ch 14).

Success begins with an orderly arrival: airspeed, alignment, and configuration well in hand crossing the threshold (AFH ch 14).

That's not filler. Everything downstream — the hold-off, the three-point attitude, the rollout — assumes a stable approach. There is no tailwheel technique that rescues a bad one.

Because with the tailwheel on the surface, a further increase in pitch attitude is impossible — so the airplane remains on the runway, albeit tenuously (AFH ch 14).

As you decelerate, weight shifts increasingly from the wings to the wheels, with the final result that the airplane once again becomes a ground vehicle after shedding most of its speed (AFH ch 14).

Once the tailwheel makes contact, ease the elevator control fully back to press the tailwheel onto the runway (AFH ch 14).

Why it matters: without that input, the AOA of the horizontal stabilizer develops enough lift to lighten the pressure on the tailwheel and render it useless as a directional control — with possibly unwelcome consequences. The AFH specifically notes this after-landing elevator input is quite foreign to nose-wheel pilots and needs to be stressed during transition training (AFH ch 14).

It flies you. Before the tailwheel is on the ground, application of full back elevator during the flare lowers the tail, increases AOA, and quite naturally puts the airplane in climbing flight (AFH ch 14).

So the same control input means opposite things on either side of touchdown: full aft before contact is a climb; full aft after contact is what pins the tailwheel and gives you steering. Timing is everything.

With the CG aft of the main wheels, the tail naturally drops when the mains touch, AOA increases, and the airplane may become airborne again — this is a skip (AFH ch 14).

Recovery: easily managed by re-flaring and again trying to hold the airplane off until reaching the three-point attitude.

But: a large skip or bounce may leave you high above the runway with insufficient energy — in those circumstances, execute a go-around (AFH ch 14).

The in-flight pitch attitude ends up steeper than the three-point attitude, so the tail makes contact first.

Provided this happens from no more than a foot off the surface, the result is undramatic: the tail touches, the airplane pitches forward slightly onto the main wheels, and rollout proceeds normally (AFH ch 14).

Of the two errors, this is the benign one — which is a useful bias to carry into the flare.

The landing process should never be considered complete until the airplane decelerates to normal taxi speed during the landing roll, or has been brought to a complete stop when clear of the landing area (AFH ch 14).

Be alert for directional control difficulties immediately upon and after touchdown, and hold the elevator back as far as possible and as firmly as possible until the airplane stops (AFH ch 14).

• More positive control with tailwheel steering
• Tends to shorten the after-landing roll
• Prevents bouncing and skipping (AFH ch 14)

Only after the airplane has been slowed sufficiently and has been turned onto a taxiway or is clear of the landing area, and brought to a complete stop (AFH ch 14).

If available runway permits, let the speed dissipate normally by the friction and drag of the wheels; brakes may be used if needed to help slow the airplane (AFH ch 14). Heads-down flap-fumbling during a tailwheel rollout is how swerves get missed.

Upon touchdown, hold the airplane firmly in a three-point attitude — this provides aerodynamic braking by the wings.

Immediately upon touchdown and closing the throttle, apply the brakes evenly and firmly to minimize the after-landing roll. Stop the airplane in the shortest possible distance consistent with safety (AFH ch 14).

The tailwheel should touch down simultaneously with or just before the main wheels, and then be held down with firm back-elevator pressure throughout the landing roll. This minimizes any tendency to nose over and provides aerodynamic braking.

Brakes are not needed on a soft field — the soft or rough surface itself provides sufficient speed reduction. On a very soft field you often need to increase power to keep the airplane moving and avoid getting stuck (AFH ch 14).

Nose-wheel: touchdown is naturally followed by a reduction in pitch attitude to bring the nose-wheel tire down. That pitch change reduces AOA, removes almost all wing lift, and rapidly transfers aircraft weight to the tires (AFH ch 14).

Tailwheel: that reduction of AOA and weight transfer are not practical, and it is rare to encounter tailwheel airplanes designed so the wings are beyond critical AOA in the three-point attitude. In consequence the airplane continues to "fly" in the three-point attitude after touchdown, requiring careful attention to heading, roll, and pitch for an extended period (AFH ch 14).

That extended period is where ground loops live.

Because the practical effect is the same even though the aerodynamics aren't. The AFH is explicit that the AOA with all three wheels on the ground does not exceed the critical AOA, and the wings will not be stalled (AFH ch 14).

What actually ends the flight is geometry, not stall: with the tailwheel on the surface, a further increase in pitch attitude is impossible (AFH ch 14). You run out of the ability to trade speed for AOA, and deceleration does the rest as weight shifts from wings to wheels.

The AFH describes the skip as the specific product of touching the mains early with the tail up — the tail drops, AOA increases, and the airplane becomes airborne again. It's easily managed by re-flaring and again holding off until reaching the three-point attitude (AFH ch 14).

The escalation is what matters: a large skip or bounce may result in being high above the runway with insufficient energy — and in those circumstances the AFH's instruction is not to salvage it, but to execute a go-around (AFH ch 14). Bounce recovery is covered in more depth under the crosswind and go-around section.

Touchdown must occur with the airplane's longitudinal axis parallel to the direction the airplane is moving along the runway. Failure to accomplish this imposes side loads on the landing gear, which leads to directional instability (AFH ch 14).

So: do not allow the airplane to touch down while in a crab or while drifting (AFH ch 14). Tailwheel airplanes are explicitly less forgiving of crosswind landing errors than nose-wheel models, and a side-load on landing is one of the named ways a swerve gets started.

The airplane is allowed to touch down earlier in the process in a lower pitch attitude, so that the main gear touch while the tail remains off the runway (AFH ch 14).

Contrast the three-point landing, where the airplane is held off until the attitude matches the gear geometry and all three wheels touch together.

Because in some wind conditions, the need to retain control authority makes it desirable to make contact with the runway at a higher airspeed than the speed associated with the three-point attitude (AFH ch 14).

Higher touchdown speed means more airflow over the control surfaces, which means more authority to fight drift and weathervaning while you're transitioning to a ground vehicle.

The two ingredients are a soft touchdown and a slight relaxation of back elevator just after the wheels touch.

Both exist for the same reason: if the tail is off the ground, it tends to drop and put the airplane airborne (AFH ch 14). Easing off the back pressure is what prevents the AOA increase that would fly you off the runway again — note that it's a relaxation, not a forward push. Pushing forward is the input that starts a PIO.

Permit the tail to drop on its own accord until it too makes ground contact. At that point, bring the elevator to the full aft position and allow deceleration to proceed as in a three-point landing (AFH ch 14).

You don't force the tail down and you don't hold it up indefinitely — you let it come down on its own schedule, then pin it.

The tail is forced down by its own weight, resulting in a sudden increase in lift (AFH ch 14).

Now you're back in the air in a nose-high attitude at wheel-landing speed — which is exactly the setup for the pilot-induced oscillation that follows.

Because if you push forward in an attempt to make contact with the surface again, a potentially dangerous pilot-induced oscillation may develop (AFH ch 14).

Each push arrives out of phase with the airplane's own pitch cycle, so the oscillation grows instead of damping — and the arrivals get progressively harder.

The two correct responses are initiating a go-around, or converting to a three-point landing if conditions permit (AFH ch 14).

Note the conditional attached only to the second option. If conditions don't clearly permit the conversion, the go-around is the answer.

No — the AFH is explicit that the only difference between three-point and wheel landings is the timing of the touchdown (early vs. later); approach angle and airspeed are identical between the two techniques (AFH ch 14).

This is the card most pilots get wrong. You fly the same approach; you just stop the descent at a different pitch attitude.

Because the initial touchdown speed is higher than for a three-point landing, making the flight controls more effective.

There's a second reason too: in some airplanes, rudder effectiveness can be reduced by the blocking effect of the fuselage and flaps with the tail low and on the ground (AFH ch 14). Keeping the tail up keeps the rudder in clean air.

The upwind main wheel touches down alone, in a side-slip or wing-low attitude (AFH ch 14). Contrast the three-point landing, where that upwind main touches in concert with the tailwheel.

No — deceleration should be allowed to proceed as in a three-point landing (AFH ch 14). The same rollout discipline applies:

• Elevator held back as far and as firmly as possible until the airplane stops
• Alert for directional control difficulties immediately upon and after touchdown
• In a crosswind, aileron increasing toward the wind as you slow (AFH ch 14)

Not necessarily — some manufacturers recommend against wheel landings in their airplane, and that carries regulatory weight for your endorsement: wheel-landing training is required "unless the manufacturer has recommended against such landings" (61.31(i)(1)(ii)).

Check the POH/AFM for your specific airplane. Covered in full under the endorsement section.

1. Fly the same approach angle and airspeed you'd fly for a three-point landing.
2. Arrest the descent in a flatter pitch attitude with the tail still off the runway, and make a soft touchdown on the mains.
3. Slightly relax back elevator just after the wheels touch — this is what keeps the tail from dropping and flying you off again.
4. Let the tail drop on its own accord until it contacts the runway.
5. Elevator to full aft, then decelerate exactly as in a three-point landing (AFH ch 14).

• Cause: touchdown at too high a rate of descent.
• First effect: the tail is forced down by its own weight.
• Second effect: that tail-drop increases AOA, producing a sudden increase in lift — you're airborne again, nose-high.
• The trap: the pilot pushes forward to make contact again, and because that input is out of phase with the airplane's pitch cycle, a potentially dangerous pilot-induced oscillation may develop (AFH ch 14).

The exit is to stop trying to place the airplane on the runway at all: go around, or convert to a three-point landing if conditions permit (AFH ch 14).

They're the same mechanism at different stages: because the CG is aft of the main wheels, a mains-first touchdown with the tail up makes the tail drop, AOA increase, and the airplane become airborne again (AFH ch 14).

Three-point: the mains-first touchdown is an error — the fix is to re-flare and hold off to the three-point attitude.

Wheel landing: the mains-first touchdown is the plan, and the fix is built into the technique itself — a soft touchdown plus a slight relaxation of back elevator. Flown too firmly, it degrades into the same problem, needing the same answer as a large skip: a go-around.

Higher initial touchdown speed makes the flight controls more effective at the moment you most need aileron and rudder authority to hold alignment and kill drift. Second, rudder effectiveness can be reduced by the blocking effect of the fuselage and flaps with the tail low and on the ground in some airplanes — holding the tail up keeps the rudder working in undisturbed air (AFH ch 14).

Both are authority arguments. In a crosswind, the risk you're managing is a swerve, and a swerve is easier to prevent than to stop.

Touchdown must occur with the airplane's longitudinal axis parallel to the direction the airplane is moving along the runway (AFH ch 14).

Failure to do this imposes side loads on the landing gear, leading to directional instability — never allow the airplane to touch down while in a crab or while drifting (AFH ch 14). Tailwheel airplanes are less forgiving of crosswind landing errors than nose-wheel models.

By far the best approach to crosswind management is a side-slip or wing-low touchdown (AFH ch 14).

Landing in that attitude, only one main wheel makes initial contact — either in concert with the tailwheel in a three-point landing, or by itself in a wheel landing.

Many tailwheel pilots prefer completing a wheel landing in a crosswind, for two reasons (AFH ch 14): the initial touchdown speed is higher, which makes the flight controls more effective; and in some airplanes, rudder effectiveness can be reduced by the blocking effect of the fuselage and flaps with the tail low and on the ground.

Both are arguments about control authority at the moment you need it most.

Directional control: maintained using rudder and tailwheel steering.

Upwind wing: kept from rising using aileron (AFH ch 14).

Special attention is warranted here — the after-landing roll is called out specifically, because this is where the airplane is slowest and least controllable while the wind is unchanged.

Two things move against you at once (AFH ch 14): the airplane is slowing, so there's less airflow around the ailerons and they become less effective; and the relative wind becomes more of a crosswind, exerting a greater lifting force on the upwind wing.

Consequently, as the airplane comes to a stop, the aileron control should be held fully toward the wind (AFH ch 14).

This tendency is more prevalent in the tailwheel type because the surface area behind the main gear is greater than in nose-wheel airplanes (AFH ch 14).

Any airplane characteristically has greater profile or side area behind the main landing gear than forward of it. With the main wheels acting as a pivot point and that greater surface area exposed to the crosswind behind the pivot, the airplane tends to weathervane into the wind.

Be familiar with the crosswind component of each airplane you fly, and avoid operations in wind conditions that exceed the capability of the airplane, as well as your own limitations (AFH ch 14).

Two separate limits, and the AFH names both. The airplane's number comes from the POH; yours comes from honest self-assessment.

When the airplane contacts the ground with a sharp impact from an improper attitude or an excessive rate of sink, it rebounds into the air because the wing's AOA was abruptly increased, producing a sudden addition of lift — not because the tires spring back like a rubber ball (AFH ch 9).

The abrupt AOA change is the result of inertia instantly forcing the tail downward when the main wheels contact sharply. Severity depends on the airspeed at contact and how much the AOA or pitch attitude increased (AFH ch 9).

The mains touch a little early with the tail still in the air. With the CG aft of the main wheels the tail drops, AOA increases, and the airplane may become airborne again (AFH ch 14).

Fix: easily managed by re-flaring and again trying to hold the airplane off until reaching the three-point attitude.

Limit: a large skip or bounce may result in being high above the runway with insufficient energy — in those circumstances, execute a go-around (AFH ch 14).

Your options: initiate a go-around, or convert to a three-point landing if conditions permit (AFH ch 14).

Don't push forward to force contact — that risks a pilot-induced oscillation (AFH ch 14).

1. Power
2. Attitude
3. Configuration (AFH ch 9)

The go-around is a normal maneuver, used when approach and landing parameters deviate from expectations or when it's hazardous to continue (AFH ch 9).

No — and the AFH names this belief as a hazard. The assumption that an aborted landing is invariably the consequence of a poor approach due to insufficient experience or skill is a fallacy. Any approach or landing may result in a go-around (AFH ch 9).

Reasons to discontinue include:

• ATC requirements
• Unexpected hazards on the runway
• Overtaking another airplane
• Wind shear
• Wake turbulence
• Mechanical failure
• An unstable approach

(AFH ch 9)

The maneuver is not inherently dangerous in itself — it becomes dangerous only when delayed unduly or executed improperly. The most critical go-around is one started when very close to the ground (AFH ch 9).

Delay normally stems from two sources (AFH ch 9): landing expectancy or set — the anticipatory belief that conditions aren't as threatening as they are and that the approach is sure to end in a safe landing; and pride — the mistaken belief that going around is an admission of failure.

Because the forces diverge. As the airplane slows, your control authority decreases — less airflow over the ailerons and rudder — while at the same time the relative wind becomes more of a crosswind and exerts a greater lifting force on the upwind wing (AFH ch 14).

Meanwhile the airplane is still "flying" in the three-point attitude after touchdown, requiring careful attention to heading, roll, and pitch for an extended period (AFH ch 14). Falling authority against rising disturbance, over an extended period, in an airplane that's directionally unstable by design. That's the risk window.

That difference creates a moment about the pivot point of the wheels, and the airplane tends to swerve. Loss of directional control may lead to an aggravated, uncontrolled, tight turn on the ground: a ground loop (AFH ch 14).

The combination of inertia acting on the CG and ground friction of the main wheels may cause the airplane to tip enough for the outside wingtip to contact the ground, and may even impose a sideward force that could collapse one landing gear leg (AFH ch 14).

Prevention, per the AFH, is simple to state: land straight and avoid turns at higher than normal running speed.

1. Counter the swerve with firm rudder input.
2. In stronger swerves, differential braking is essential — tailwheel steering alone proves inadequate.
3. As corrections begin to become apparent, remove the rudder and braking inputs promptly — otherwise you start yet another departure in the opposite direction (AFH ch 14).

Underneath it all, remember the governing maxim: tailwheel airplanes are not damaged from the use of too much rudder, but rather from rudder inputs held for too long (AFH ch 14).

Because a bounce occurs when the airplane makes contact with the ground before the proper touchdown attitude is attained — so it is almost invariably accompanied by the application of excessive back-elevator pressure (AFH ch 9).

This is usually the result of the pilot realizing too late that the airplane is not in the proper attitude and attempting to establish it just as the second touchdown occurs (AFH ch 9). The input is correct; the timing makes it harmful.

Two reasons converge.

Regulatory: go-around procedures are one of the three training areas 61.31(i)(1) requires for the endorsement — alongside normal and crosswind takeoffs and landings, and wheel landings. It isn't optional coverage.

Practical: the AFH's stated exits from a large three-point skip and from a bounced wheel landing are both the go-around (AFH ch 14). In a tailwheel airplane, the go-around isn't a rarely-used maneuver — it's the standing answer to the two most common ways a landing goes wrong.

Unless the exception in 61.31(i)(2) applies, you must have received and logged flight training in a tailwheel airplane from an authorized instructor, and received a logbook endorsement from an authorized instructor who found you proficient in the operation of a tailwheel airplane (61.31(i)(1)).

Note what's absent: no knowledge test, no practical test, no new certificate or rating. It's a one-time logbook endorsement.

The flight training must include at least the following (61.31(i)(1)):

1. Normal and crosswind takeoffs and landings (61.31(i)(1)(i))
2. Wheel landings, unless the manufacturer has recommended against such landings (61.31(i)(1)(ii))
3. Go-around procedures (61.31(i)(1)(iii))

"At least" matters — this is a floor, not a syllabus.

Wheel landing training is required "unless the manufacturer has recommended against such landings" (61.31(i)(1)(ii)).

Two things to get right: the trigger is the manufacturer's recommendation for that airplane — not your preference, your instructor's preference, or the conditions on the day — and it only removes wheel landings, since normal and crosswind takeoffs and landings and go-around procedures are still required, and you still need the endorsement.

Check the POH/AFM for your specific make and model.

Yes — the training and endorsement aren't required if the pilot logged pilot-in-command time in a tailwheel airplane before April 15, 1991 (61.31(i)(2)).

That's logged PIC time — not dual, not a ride along. If you're relying on it, you need the logbook entry to prove it.

An authorized instructor. The endorsement may be given by a sport pilot instructor in a sport pilot aircraft, or by a flight instructor holding a rating other than sport pilot in an airplane (AC 61-65J ¶A.71).

The sample endorsement in AC 61-65J ¶A.71 reads:

"I certify that [name], [grade of pilot certificate], [certificate number], has received the required training of § 61.31(i) in a [make and model] of tailwheel airplane. I have determined that they are proficient in the operation of a tailwheel airplane."

Signed with the instructor's signature, date, CFI number, and expiration date.

Yes. The endorsement certifies you are proficient in the operation of a tailwheel airplane — it is not make-and-model limited, even though the make and model you trained in is written into it (61.31(i), AC 61-65J ¶A.71).

Legal is not the same as smart, though. Tailwheel airplanes differ substantially in ground handling, visibility, brakes, and tailwheel design, so getting checked out in a new type is a proficiency decision even when no regulation forces it.

No — and it isn't required. The training and endorsement must be done while the aircraft is in its wheeled landing gear configuration — main wheels and a tailwheel; if it's fitted with skis or floats in place of the wheeled landing gear, the training cannot be accomplished and the endorsement isn't required (AC 61-65J ¶33.3).

To a full stop — that's the tailwheel-specific twist in 61.57(a)(1)(ii): if the airplane has a tailwheel, the takeoffs and landings required for passenger currency must be made to a full stop.

The general rule (61.57(a)(1)) requires three takeoffs and three landings within the preceding 90 days as sole manipulator of the controls, in an aircraft of the same category, class, and type (if a type rating is required), to carry passengers.

No touch-and-goes count toward tailwheel passenger currency — day or night.

No — this is the trap. The tailwheel full-stop requirement sits in 61.57(a)(1)(ii), which is part of the general currency paragraph, not the night one — so full stop is required by day as well.

The night rule (61.57(b)) separately requires three takeoffs and three landings to a full stop for every airplane, tailwheel or not; that's a different, additional rule from the tailwheel-specific one.

The endorsement itself is a one-time logbook endorsement — there's no expiration and no recurrent requirement in 61.31(i).

What does have a clock is 61.57 passenger currency (90 days, full-stop landings in a tailwheel airplane) and your 61.56 flight review every 24 calendar months, which is not tailwheel-specific.

Yes. 61.57(a)(1) only restricts acting as PIC carrying persons (or in an aircraft certificated for more than one pilot crewmember) — solo flight outside the 90-day window is unaffected.

61.57(a)(2) also makes the re-currency flight explicit: you may act as PIC under day VFR or day IFR to meet the requirements, provided no persons or property are carried on board other than those necessary for the conduct of the flight.

It's one of the one-time proficiency endorsements that need no checkride and grant no new rating (61.31), alongside:

• Complex (61.31(e))
• High-performance — an engine of more than 200 horsepower (61.31(f))
• Pressurized aircraft capable of high altitude — a service ceiling or max operating altitude above 25,000 ft MSL (61.31(g))

Note the tailwheel endorsement requires flight training only — unlike the pressurized-aircraft endorsement, which requires both ground and flight training (61.31(g)(1) and (g)(2)).

Only the wheel landing training drops out, under the express exception in 61.31(i)(1)(ii).

Everything else is unchanged: you still need normal and crosswind takeoffs and landings and go-around procedures, you still need logged flight training in a tailwheel airplane from an authorized instructor, and you still need the logbook endorsement certifying you proficient in the operation of a tailwheel airplane (61.31(i)(1)).

Document the basis. If a question is ever asked, the answer is the manufacturer's recommendation in the POH/AFM — not a recollection.

Both. The text of 61.57(a)(1)(ii) requires that the takeoffs and landings "must have been made to a full stop in an airplane with a tailwheel."

So three full-stop landings in a nose-wheel airplane of the same category and class do not make you current to carry passengers in a tailwheel airplane. Category and class alone isn't enough here — this is the one place the reg reaches past category/class to the landing gear configuration.

Yes, but the conditions are narrow. Under 61.57(a)(3), they may be accomplished in a full flight simulator or flight training device that is approved by the Administrator for landings and used in accordance with an approved course conducted by a training center certificated under part 142.

For the typical tailwheel pilot, that's not a realistic path — go fly three full stops.

Legal: the 61.31(i) endorsement is one-time and doesn't expire, so if your flight review (61.56, every 24 calendar months) is current you may act as PIC solo. To carry passengers you'd need three full-stop takeoffs and landings in a tailwheel airplane within the preceding 90 days (61.57(a)(1)(ii)) — and 61.57(a)(2) lets you fly those with no one aboard but persons necessary for the flight.

Wise: that's the classic current but not proficient gap. Take an instructor, and spend the flight on the things the AFH warns about — crosswind rollouts, bounce recognition, and go-arounds.