Spin Awareness and Spins

A spin is an aggravated stall that results in autorotation, wherein the airplane follows a downward corkscrew path (AC 61-67C, par. 107; AFH glossary). The airplane rotates about its vertical axis under different lift and drag forces on each wing, descending under gravity while rolling, yawing, and pitching in a spiral path (AFH 5-22).

The recipe is exactly two ingredients: at least one wing exceeding the critical AOA (a stall), with a sideslip or yaw acting on the airplane at or beyond the stall (AFH 5-22). All spins are preceded by a stall on at least part of the wing (AC 61-67C, par. 100).

The one-line version for a student: stall plus yaw equals spin. Take away either one and there is no spin.

When the airplane yaws at the stall, the two wings are no longer at the same AOA:

• The descending wing is at a higher AOA — more deeply stalled, producing less lift and more drag.
• The rising wing is less stalled — producing more lift and less drag (AC 61-67C, par. 107).

The lift difference rolls the airplane toward the descending wing; the drag difference yaws it the same way. The yaw sustains the AOA difference, which sustains the roll — a self-feeding loop. That is autorotation: the spin drives itself, which is why simply relaxing back pressure often isn't enough and rudder tends to be the most important control for recovery in typical single-engine airplanes (AFH 5-25).

Mind the mismatch: AI.X.I.K3 asks for three — entry, incipient, and developed. The AFH describes four, adding recovery as a phase of its own (AFH 5-24). Give the examiner all four and say which is which; the fourth is the one you spend the lesson on.

From AFH 5-24:

1. Entry — the pilot, intentionally or accidentally, provides the necessary elements for the spin. The intentional entry resembles a power-off stall: power to idle, nose up to assure a stall, then full rudder in the desired direction of rotation with full back elevator to the limit of travel, ailerons neutral unless the POH says otherwise.
2. Incipient — from the moment the airplane stalls and starts rotating until the spin has fully developed. Two to four turns for most airplanes. Aerodynamic and inertial forces have not achieved balance; indicated airspeed generally stabilizes low and constant.
3. Developed — angular rotation rate, airspeed, and vertical speed are stabilized in a nearly vertical flightpath; aerodynamic and inertial forces are in balance. The spin is in equilibrium.
4. Recovery — rotation ceases and AOA is decreased below critical. May last as little as a quarter turn or up to several turns depending on the airplane and the type of spin.

Always follow the manufacturer's procedure. The AFH's six-step template applies only in the absence of the manufacturer's recommended procedure (AFH 5-24):

1. Reduce power to idle. Power aggravates spin characteristics — it can produce a flatter spin attitude and usually increases the rate of rotation.
2. Ailerons neutral. Aileron into the spin may accelerate the rotation, steepen the attitude, and delay recovery; aileron against the spin may flatten the attitude and delay recovery, or may even be responsible for an unrecoverable spin.
3. Full opposite rudder against the rotation, held until rotation stops. Application must be brisk and full. Slow and overly cautious opposite rudder can allow the airplane to spin indefinitely, even with anti-spin inputs.
4. Positive, brisk, straight-forward elevator (forward of neutral) — immediately after full rudder. Do not wait for the rotation to stop. In some cases full forward elevator may be required.
5. Neutralize the rudder after rotation stops — failure to do so causes a yawing or sideslipping effect as airspeed increases.
6. Back elevator pressure to return to level flight; adjust power. Not excessive: excessive back pressure can cause a secondary stall and may result in another spin. Avoid exceeding G-load limits and airspeed limitations during the pull-out.

PARE is a memory aid for steps 1 through 4 of the AFH template (AFH 5-24). What it leaves out is the half that produces secondary spins and overstressed airframes:

• Neutralize the rudder once rotation stops (step 5) — otherwise you yaw or sideslip into a spin the other way.
• Recover from the dive with smooth back pressure (step 6) — too much or too abrupt aft elevator can produce a secondary stall and possibly another spin (AC 61-67C, par. 111).

Two of the AFH's ten spin common errors are exactly these omissions: failure to neutralize the rudder after rotation stops, possibly resulting in a secondary spin, and excessive back-elevator pressure after rotation stops, possibly resulting in a secondary stall (AFH 5-26). Teach PARE, then teach what comes after PARE.

The turn indicator is reliable. The inclinometer ball is not.

The symbolic airplane of the turn indicator shows a deflection in the direction of rotation, and the AFH says to use it if disoriented (AFH 5-24).

Do not use the slip/skid ball to determine spin direction. Its indication is governed by where the instrument is mounted in the airplane, not the direction of the spin — a ball mounted on the left side of the airplane will always move to the left, even in a spin with rotation to the right (AFH 5-24).

The airspeed indicator is your other key instrument, but for a different question: in a spin the airplane is stalled, so indicated airspeed should be relatively low and constant and should not be accelerating. If the airspeed is increasing, the airplane is no longer in a spin (AFH 5-25).

• The first turn loses approximately 1,000 feet; each subsequent turn loses about half that (AFH 5-23).
• AC 61-67C's rough estimate is approximately 500 feet per each 3-second turn in most small aircraft approved for spins, with greater losses at higher density altitudes (par. 111).

The floors that follow from those numbers:

• All spins should begin at an altitude high enough to complete recovery at or above 1,500 feet AGL (AFH 5-23).
• Spin avoidance, incipient spins, entries, spins, and recoveries should be practiced from an altitude above 3,500 feet AGL (AC 61-67C, par. 300b).
• The ACS requires an entry altitude allowing the Task to be completed no lower than 4,000 feet AGL (AI.X.I.S2).

Three official sources, and you check all three (AFH 5-25):

• Type Certificate Data Sheets or the aircraft specifications.
• The limitations section of the FAA-approved AFM/POH — including any limiting gross weight, CG range, or amount of fuel.
• A placard in clear view of the pilot — e.g. "No acrobatic maneuvers, including spins, approved."

Under 23.1567 the placards are specified by category (AC 61-67C, par. 401): normal category must be placarded "No acrobatic maneuvers, including spins, approved"; utility category that does not meet the acrobatic spin requirements must carry an additional "Spins Prohibited" placard; acrobatic and spin-approved utility airplanes must carry a placard listing the control actions for spin recovery and stating that recovery must be initiated when spiral characteristics appear, or after not more than six turns (or any greater certificated number).

If the manufacturer does not specifically approve the airplane for spins, intentional spins are not authorized (AFH 5-25).

Because normal-category certification never tested a developed spin. Under 14 CFR 23.221(a) — still applicable to airplanes certified under it — a normal category airplane only had to recover from a one-turn spin or a three-second spin, whichever takes longer, in not more than one additional turn after the first recovery control action, or demonstrate compliance with the optional spin-resistance requirements (AFH 5-25; AC 61-67C, par. 400a).

The AFH names the rationalization directly: some pilots and even some instructors argue the restriction is a "technicality." It isn't. Since airplanes certificated in the normal category have not been tested for more than a one turn or 3-second spin, their performance characteristics beyond these limits are unknown (AC 61-67C, par. 400a note). In all airplanes placarded against spins, there is absolutely no assurance that recovery from a fully developed spin is possible under any circumstances — assume the airplane could become uncontrollable (AFH 5-25; AC 61-67C, par. 402).

For contrast, acrobatic category airplanes must recover from any point in a spin up to and including six turns in no more than one and a half additional turns (AC 61-67C, par. 400b).

Unless each occupant wears an approved parachute, no pilot carrying any person other than a crewmember may execute an intentional maneuver exceeding a bank of 60 degrees or a nose-up or nose-down attitude of 30 degrees relative to the horizon (91.307(c)).

Paragraph (c) does not apply to flight tests for pilot certification or rating, or to spins and other flight maneuvers required by the regulations for any certificate or rating when given by a certificated flight instructor (or an ATP instructing per 61.67) (91.307(d)).

AC 61-67C par. 301 applies that directly: because spin entry, spins, and spin recovery are required for a flight instructor airplane or glider rating under 61.183(i), a person receiving that instruction from an authorized instructor need not wear an approved parachute, and the instructor providing the training is also not required to wear one.

Separately, 91.303 prohibits aerobatic flight over a congested area or open-air assembly, within the lateral boundaries of the surface areas of Class B, C, D, or E airspace designated for an airport, within 4 NM of the centerline of any Federal airway, below 1,500 feet AGL, or when flight visibility is less than 3 statute miles. Aerobatic flight means an intentional maneuver involving an abrupt change in attitude, an abnormal attitude, or abnormal acceleration, not necessary for normal flight — a spin qualifies. Pick your practice area accordingly.

An applicant for a flight instructor certificate with an airplane or glider rating must (61.183(i)):

1. Receive a logbook endorsement from an authorized instructor indicating the applicant is competent and possesses instructional proficiency in stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin recovery procedures, after receiving flight training in those areas in an airplane or glider certificated for spins; and
2. Demonstrate instructional proficiency in those areas — although on presentation of the endorsement, an examiner may accept it as satisfactory evidence for the practical test.

The sample endorsement is AC 61-65, A.45: "I certify that [name] has received the required training of § 61.183(i) in [an airplane, a glider]. I have determined that they are competent and possess instructional proficiency in stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin recovery procedures."

Two traps: the endorsement is required even for an applicant seeking an airplane multiengine rating, and the training must then be done in an airplane not restricted from spins — most likely a single-engine land airplane (AC 61-65, 26.1).

When the practical test is a retest resulting from the applicant having failed the previous test for deficiencies in the knowledge or skill of stall awareness, spin entry, spins, or spin recovery instructional procedures — in that case the examiner must test the person on those instructional procedures in an airplane or glider certificated for spins (61.183(i)(2)).

The ACS restates the discretionary side of this in the Task X.I note: at the discretion of the evaluator, a logbook record attesting applicant instructional competency in spin entries, spins, and spin recoveries may be accepted in lieu of this Task, and the flight instructor who conducted the spin instruction must certify the logbook record.

So plan to fly it. "May be accepted" is not "will be."

The AFH's review list (AFH 5-23):

• The AFM/POH limitations section, placards, or type certification data to determine spin approval.
• Weight and balance limitations.
• Recommended entry and recovery procedures.
• The current 14 CFR part 91 parachute requirements.

Then a thorough preflight inspection with special emphasis on excess or loose items that could affect weight, CG, and controllability. And a specific mechanical check: slack or loose control cables — particularly rudder and elevator — could prevent full anti-spin control deflections and delay or preclude recovery in some airplanes (AFH 5-23).

Finally, clear the flight area above and below for other traffic; this can be done while slowing for the entry (AFH 5-23).

Because even minor weight or balance changes can affect the airplane's spin recovery characteristics — either degrading or enhancing them (AFH 5-26).

The mechanism is CG's effect on elevator authority (AC 61-67C, par. 100h):

• Aft CG — less elevator deflection is needed to reach a given AOA, so stall entries become easier and higher load factors are easier to generate in recovery. With an extremely aft CG, the balance of forces may produce a flat spin, and recovery from a flat spin is often impossible.
• Forward CG — the stalling AOA is reached at a higher airspeed and requires more back pressure. Many airplanes will not spin at forward CG locations but will spiral instead (AC 61-67C, par. 112).

The category trap, stated twice in the sources: an airplane that is difficult to spin intentionally in the utility category (restricted aft CG, reduced weight) can have less resistance to spin entry in the normal category, and an airplane approved for spins in the utility category but loaded in accordance with the normal category may not recover from a spin allowed to progress beyond one turn (AFH 5-26). AC 61-67C states the same trap with the certification qualifier attached — "beyond one turn or 3-second spin, whichever is longer", citing 14 CFR 23.221(a) directly (par. 108). Quote the AC's version; it is the one that matches the rule.

Run the numbers for the spin loading, not the cross-country loading.

Follow AC 61-67C par. 300 in order:

1. Verify the aircraft is approved for spins, and consult the AFM/POH for entry and recovery techniques (par. 300a).
2. Begin with power-on and power-off stalls to familiarize the applicant with the airplane's stall characteristics (par. 300b). The AFH agrees: introduce spin training by first practicing both, in a clean configuration (AFH 5-23).
3. Spin avoidance training — stalls and slow flight with realistic distractions. Performance is unsatisfactory if it becomes necessary for the instructor to take control to avoid a fully developed spin (par. 300c).
4. Incipient spins — to train the instructor applicant to recover from a student's poorly performed stall or unusual attitude that could lead to a spin (par. 300d). Configure for a power-on or power-off stall, hold back elevator, and as the stall occurs apply right or left rudder and allow the nose to yaw toward the stalled wing; then release the spin-inducing controls and recover as the spin begins with opposite rudder and forward elevator. Discuss the control application afterward.
5. Full spin entry, spin, and recovery — demonstrated by the instructor and repeated in both directions by the applicant (par. 300e). Allow the spin to develop and be fully recovered no later than one full turn, watching the airspeed indicator so it does not reach VNE.

All of it from an altitude above 3,500 feet AGL (par. 300b), with the ACS floor at 4,000 feet AGL (AI.X.I.S2).

You hold the pro-spin inputs — the spin is sustained by the same controls that started it, and if you relax them the airplane will usually try to recover on its own. From the AFH's entry-phase procedure (AFH 5-24), carried through the incipient and developed phases:

• Rudder — full, in the direction of rotation, held to the stop. This is the input maintaining the yaw that sustains the AOA difference between the wings. Let it out and autorotation decays.
• Elevator — full aft, to the limit of travel. This keeps the inboard wing beyond the critical AOA. Relax it and the wing unstalls, which is the other half of what makes a spin a spin.
• Ailerons — neutral, unless the AFM/POH specifies otherwise. Aileron into the spin can accelerate rotation and steepen the attitude; aileron against it can flatten the attitude and delay recovery, or in some airplanes make it unrecoverable (AFH 5-25).
• Power — idle, and flaps and gear retracted as soon as practicable after entry (AFH 5-24). Power flattens the spin and speeds the rotation.

The developed phase is where those held inputs produce equilibrium: rotation rate, airspeed, and vertical speed stabilize in a near-vertical flightpath (AFH 5-24).

The instructor caveat that matters more than the procedure: you will rarely use this. ACS Task X.I and AC 61-67C par. 300e have the applicant recover no later than one full turn (par. 300e), and some training airplanes never reach the developed phase at all — they transition from the incipient phase into a spiral dive instead (AFH 5-24). Know how to hold a spin so you can explain what you are not doing, and why.

Because it is what you will actually face as an instructor. Incipient spins that are not allowed to develop into a steady-state spin are the most commonly used maneuver in initial spin training and recovery techniques (AFH 5-24), and their explicit purpose is to train you to recover from a student's poorly performed stall or unusual attitude that could lead to a spin (AC 61-67C, par. 300d).

The operating rule: initiate incipient spin recovery procedures prior to completing 360° of rotation, applying full rudder opposite the direction of rotation (AFH 5-24).

There's also an airplane-design reason. Some training airplanes will not enter the developed phase but could transition unexpectedly from the incipient phase into a spiral dive, where the airplane is not in equilibrium and G load can rapidly increase (AFH 5-24). You may not get a developed spin even if you ask for one.

Recognition: the airspeed. A spiral is recognized by a rapidly increasing airspeed after the attempted spin entry — in an actual spin, the airspeed normally stabilizes below stall speed (AC 61-67C, par. 300f). The center of rotation is near the airplane's centerline but the airplane is not stalled (par. 112).

Recovery: release the back pressure, neutralize the rudder, and recover from the steep dive — avoiding abrupt or excessive elevator inputs that could produce a secondary stall (AC 61-67C, par. 112). Reduce power to idle first to slow the acceleration (AFH 5-27).

Why confusion is catastrophic: applying full opposite rudder and forward elevator to a spiral does nothing useful, while the airplane keeps accelerating. Side forces build very rapidly and recovery must be effected immediately before exceeding the structural limits of the airplane (AC 61-67C, par. 112). Meanwhile, pulling on a spiral as if breaking a stall loads the wing at high speed — the classic in-flight structural failure.

The pilot must recognize a spiral and initiate immediate recovery (AC 61-67C, par. 300f).

• Anxiety. The AIH calls it probably the most significant psychological factor affecting flight instruction, with responses ranging from hesitancy to act to the impulse to do something even if it's wrong — some people freeze and are incapable of doing anything (AIH 2-12). Counter it by treating fear as normal, reviewing the aerodynamics first, describing the sensations to be expected, and describing the recovery before flying it.
• Disorientation. Certification standards for acrobatic airplanes explicitly guard against spin characteristics that might prevent a successful recovery due to disorientation or incapacitation of the pilot (AC 61-67C, par. 400b(4)). Brief the turn indicator as the direction reference before takeoff, not during the spin.
• Negative-G sensation and airsickness. Keep the sessions short; stop while the applicant is still ahead.
• Startle and freeze on the controls. Brief an unambiguous, forceful exchange of controls, and mean it.
• Take the procedure apart. Demonstrate each stage separately and let the applicant practice the stages before assembling the whole (AIH 2-9).

• Assume you will not have power. During a spin the engine will sometimes stop developing power due to centrifugal force acting on the fuel in the tanks, causing fuel interruption; it is recommended to assume power is not available when practicing spin recovery (AC 61-67C, par. 111).
• Carburetor heat and throttle handling per the manufacturer's recommendations, in all phases of training (AFH 5-23).
• Retract flaps and gear if extended, as soon as practicable after spin entry (AFH 5-24).
• Watch VNE on the recovery — observe the airspeed indicator during the spin and recovery to ensure it does not reach the red line (AC 61-67C, par. 300e(2)).
• Recovery from the post-spin dive generally causes higher airspeeds and higher load factors than a stall recovery, because the nose is much lower (AC 61-67C, par. 100g). Plan the pull-out, don't improvise it.

From AFH 5-26 — ten errors, grouped by what they cost you:

Entry errors — you don't get a spin:

• Failure to apply full rudder pressure to the stops in the desired direction.
• Failure to apply and maintain full up-elevator during entry — results in a spiral.
• Failure to achieve a fully stalled condition prior to entry.

Recovery errors — the spin continues or comes back:

• Failure to apply full opposite rudder briskly against the spin.
• Insufficient forward elevator during recovery.
• Waiting for rotation to stop before applying forward elevator.
• Slow and overly cautious control movements during recovery.
• Failure to neutralize the rudder after rotation stops — possibly a secondary spin.

Pull-out errors — you break something or stall again:

• Excessive back-elevator pressure after rotation stops — possibly a secondary stall.
• Insufficient back-elevator pressure during recovery — excessive airspeed.

Analyze and correct these out loud (AI.X.I.S4). The debrief is part of the Task.

Set them before engine start, not in the rotation. The floors are already fixed for you: recovery complete at or above 1,500 feet AGL (AFH ch. 5), practice above 3,500 feet AGL (AC 61-67C, par. 300b), and an entry altitude that finishes the Task no lower than 4,000 feet AGL (AI.X.I.S2). Budget against the real cost — the first turn loses approximately 1,000 feet, each subsequent turn about half that (AFH ch. 5) — so the arithmetic, not your patience, sets the deadline.

Take the airplane, announcing "I have the flight controls", when any of these happen:

• Rotation passes 360° without a recovery input. The rule is to initiate incipient spin recovery prior to completing 360° of rotation (AFH ch. 5); if the applicant has not acted by then, you act
• The student freezes on the controls. The AIH warns that under anxiety some people freeze and are incapable of doing anything (AIH ch. 2). A frozen student does not respond to coaching — do not spend a turn trying
• Inputs go the wrong way — rudder with the spin, or back pressure held into the recovery. Wrong inputs make it worse faster than no inputs
• The spin transitions to a spiral. Some training airplanes could transition unexpectedly from the incipient phase into a spiral dive where the airplane is not in equilibrium and G load can rapidly increase (AFH ch. 5). Airspeed rising and G building is a spiral: take it, and recover as a spiral, not a spin
• You reach your briefed hard deck with rotation continuing

Brief the exchange as a positive exchange of flight controls with the extra note that on this Task you may take it without the usual pause for acknowledgment — you will say it, you will have it, and you will hand it back once level. Told in advance, that is reassuring; done unannounced, it startles a student who is already saturated.